Vulnerability to food insecurity and coping strategies of agrarian households in the lower river region of the Gambia: Implication for policy

Author(s): Josephine Mendy*, Godswill Azinwie Asongwe and Raymond Ndip Nkongho This study assessed the extent of agrarian households’ vulnerability to food insecurity and coping strategies in the Lower River Region of The Gambia and implication for policy. The data was collected principally through questionnaires administered to 230 households and 10 key informants. Data was analysed using descriptive statistics with the aid of Statistical Packa ... Abstract View Full Article View DOI: 10.17352/2455-815X.000064


Introduction
Maintaining food security at the country and household levels is still a major challenge for many developing countries [1]. Food security is a multi-dimensional concept that has changed over time. However the 1996 World Food Summit adapted defi nition of Food Security is "when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to suffi cient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life". This defi nition entails four essential components: availability, stability, accessibility and utilization. On the other hand, Food insecurity is the uncertain or limited access to nutritionally adequate and safe food [2,3].
Food security has many dimensions, ranging from global, regional, national, local, and household to the individual levels. According to FAO estimates, in 2017, globally, close to 10% of the world population was faced with severe food insecurity, which corresponds to about 770 million people. At the regional level, values range from 1.4% in Northern America and Europe to almost 30% in Africa. Estimates indicate that the total number of people affected by undernourishment, or chronic food deprivation globally increased from about 804 million in 2016 to nearly 821 million in 2017 and the numbers are continually increasing [4]. The situation is getting worse in South America and in most regions in Africa. Without increasing efforts, there is a risk of falling far short of achieving the Sustainable Developments Goal (SDG) target of zero hunger by 2030 [4]. To worsen the situation, there is a continual increase in the proportion of the population experiencing severe food insecurity due to their inability to access food in the region.
The food security situation has worsened, particularly in some parts of sub-Saharan Africa, South-Eastern Asia and Western Asia [5]. Nonetheless, some parts of the world are more food secured and coping better than others. Those unable to meet their food requirements are food insecure, and a plethora of problems make them vulnerable to this. According to Zeller [6], vulnerability refers to people's propensity to fall or stay below a pre-determined food security line. The food security line could be caloric-based (i.e., food requirement) or it could include all basic needs. Vulnerability is a function of exposure to risks/shocks (events that threaten households' food access, availability and utilisation and hence their food stability) and the resilience to these risks.
The ability to ensure adequate food security lies in the ability to identify and support vulnerable households. The extent of vulnerability of an individual, household or group of persons is infl uenced by their exposure to the risk factors and ability to cope with or withstand traumatic situations [1].
Not all households can be at the same level of volatility in temporary consumption defi cit. Vulnerable households, like agrarian households, landless agricultural workers and smallscale subsistence farmers are more exposed to food insecurity.
This defi cit in consumption can push them into harder conditions of already existing food insecurity. Thus, the need to understand the risks households in vulnerable areas face, as well as their coping strategies, defi ne the level of exposure to food insecurity and their ability to prevent severity, or improve the household's situation is of utmost concerned.
A study on global food security and nutrition revealed that in most developing countries, national governments and international development policy have not invested much in agriculture [7]. In these countries, there is often the shortage of advice, knowledge, capital and well-functioning infrastructures. Where they do exist, farmers frequently do not have access, lack opportunities to process the products or to preserve them. In most cases, there is inadequate support from the agricultural policy as well as of good governance.
The level of food self-suffi ciency that prevailed in The Gambia 50 -60 years ago, especially among agricultural households, was much higher than in recent times. The fi rst major food crisis struck the country in the early eighties, which was as a result of drought and crop failure. Today, the food security situation continues to worsen, particularly for populations reliant on agriculture as their livelihood source [8]. Consequences of food insecurity range from lowered food production, reduced income, reduced assets holding, and increased indebtedness [9].
Food insecurity and vulnerability serve as unhappy reminders of the gravity of food scarcity and the need to put in place reliable and sustainable measures for enhancing food security [10].
While little literature seems to focus obliquely on vulnerability levels and coping strategies, very little attention is also paid on implications on policy for household food insecurity. Policy infl uences food security to a great extent.
However, a critical analysis of the relationship is key.
It is against this backdrop that this study seeks to assess the degree of agrarian households' vulnerability to food insecurity and coping strategies in the Lower River Region of The Gambia and implication to policy.
Citation: Mendy J, Asongwe GA, Nkongho RN (2020) Vulnerability to food insecurity and coping strategies of agrarian households in the lower river region of the Gambia: Implication for policy. Int J Agric Sc Food Technol 6(2): 115-126. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.17352/2455-815X.000064 The Gambia lies in the Sahelian agro-climatic zone and its climate is characterized by two diverse seasons: a 5 months rainy season (June to October) and a long dry season from November to May. The average annual rainfall is 836 mm, with a spatial disparity from over 1,000 mm in the south to less than 800 mm in the north, hence high variability and erratic nature of precipitation and high variability in inter-annual and annual rainfall variability (2018 climate report).

Study area
Lower River Region falls within the Sudano-Sahelian agroecological zone. It has prolonged periods of dryness known for its longer growing season (79 -119 days) and within a 600 to 900 mm rainfall isohyets well suited for groundnut, sorghum and cotton in the upland areas. However, the fl ood plains along the Gambia River and associated lowland valley systems are an excellent rice growing catchment for tidal irrigation [11].
The geomorphology of The Gambia is dominated by the Gambia River, the Country's most valuable natural resource.
The river fl ows through the centre of the country from East to West, emptying into the Atlantic Ocean. According to Hug, et al. (2007), climate change is projected to increase runoff in the catchment area of the Gambia River by 50%. This in turn will have a growing effect on the salt water intrusion in the river, by increasing runoff by 3% which would result in major alterations to the river's balance.
According to work done by Healey [12], there is inadequate data on The Gambia River's water quality and Lower river region in particular where the study was carried out. However, various studies have been conducted on specifi c areas of the Gambia River, such as those located further downriver, have inferior water quality, with respect to irrigation and consumption, due to the presence of salt water, anthropogenic disturbances, and effl uents. The entire river is deemed unfi t for water consumption by humans due to high salt levels, from the mouth of the river to site 12, and the presence of coliform bacteria at all sites.
However, the river water is widely used, ecosystem health appears to be good, and the upper reaches are suitable for agricultural purposes. The lower areas of the river, though unsuitable for irrigation due to its brackish nature, have a more diverse fi sh fauna [13].
The soils are acid sulphate soils either affected by salinity or are under the infl uence of the potential acid sulphate condition.
Soils outside the real delta and its tidal infl uence can only be used for rice cultivation during the rainy season when fresh water fl ush pushes down the salinity level in the river waters and in the soil profi le (FAO, Jatta 2013) Figure 1.

Study population and sampling strategy
The study population consisted primarily of members of agrarian households in the Lower River Region of The Gambia and key informants from relevant institutions. To select study participants, a multi-staged sampling procedure was employed. In the initial stage, a simple random sampling technique was used to select villages in the Lower River Region of The Gambia using the random number table. A simple random sampling method was used because in simple random sampling, each data point has an equal probability of being chosen whilst systematic sampling chooses a data point per each predetermined interval.
In the random table sampling, all the villages were numbered, from 001 to 157 and random numbers generated to represent the villages. In the second stage, a 3% sampling intensity in each of the 115 villages was used to determine the number of households per village and adopted as our sample. This is because some villages have larger population size thus an equal representation. In the third stage, agrarian households were purposively and conveniently selected from the selected villages, as only households where agriculture constituted a signifi cant proportion of income and food was selected. In the fi nal stage, the households' head was targeted; however, in their absence, available household members were conveniently selected and constituted a sample of 285 households' head.

Data collection
Primary data was principally obtained from a structured questionnaire containing open and close-ended questions and divided into four sections. The total number of questionnaires administered was 230, because some of the villages did not have any agrarian household. The primary data was complemented with secondary data from relevant institutions and available literature.
The fi nal analysis of this work is a result of triangulating the available secondary and primary data collected using Food and Nutrition Security Conceptual Framework. The level of vulnerability to food insecurity was determined by taking into account household's food consumption (dietary diversity and frequency) and ability to access food (physical and economic access). In order to identify the population who are vulnerable to food insecurity, a modifi ed Consolidated Approach to Reporting Indicators (CARI) food security analysis was used.
Accordingly, the degree of households' vulnerability to food insecurity was estimated using the modifi ed method with three descriptive groups: Food secure, moderately food insecure and highly food insecure. Figures were obtained by applying the percentages of vulnerability on the population.

Analytical approach
Descriptive statistics was employed to analyse data obtained from the questionnaire (i.e. frequency and percentages). The data was analysed using IBM® Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 20. Qualitative data was analysed using content analyses techniques. These analysis were presented using narratives, tables and charts. Charts and tables were developed using Microsoft Offi ce 2013.
Vulnerability analysis helped to estimate the proportion of people who will be at the risk of food insecurity in the future.
The CARI method was adopted in the study. The approach is a World Food Program (WFP) method used to analyse and report the level of food insecurity within a population. Under this approach each household is classifi ed into one of the four food security categories based on the household's current status of food security using food consumption indicators and their coping strategies.

Results
The socio-demographic profi le of study respondents

The extent of agrarian households' vulnerability to food insecurity in the Lower River Region of The Gambia
Food Insecure and Vulnerable Population: The distribution of households in the study areas based on degree of vulnerability to food insecurity ( The analysis of vulnerability to food insecurity indicates that on average, the degree of vulnerability in the study area is about 45%. Households in Jarra West district are highly vulnerable (2.65%) followed by those in Jarra East district (1.97%), which can be attributed to the fact that most of the households in these two districts are not strictly agrarian.
The main economic activity is trade, especially in the towns of Soma and Wellingara-ba in Jarra West and Jarra East, respectively, where there are daily and weekly markets (Lumos). According to this study, households in Kiang East are less vulnerable to food insecurity (0.98%). The results show signifi cant differences in vulnerability to food insecurity across the districts. This is an indication that district-specifi c coping strategies are needed. Hence, food security intervention programs should give priority to highly vulnerable areas like Jarra West and Jarra East districts. Table 3 below summarizes the distribution of households in the study areas based on degree of vulnerability to food insecurity.

Households' vulnerability to food insecurity
The analysis of vulnerability to food insecurity indicates that on average, the degree of vulnerability in the study area is about 45%. Households in Jarra West district are highly vulnerable to food insecurity (11.58%) followed by those in Jarra East district (9.18%). Households in Kiang East are less vulnerable to food insecurity (4.91%). There is a signifi cant difference in vulnerability to food insecurity across the districts.

Coping strategies of agrarian households to food insecurity in Lower River Region of The Gambia
Food insecurity coping strategies: The study revealed that most food-insecure households tend to reduce the expenditure of the household to the least to buy food (65.3%), turn to the consumption of low quality and cheaper foodstuff (Shift to less preferred food) (53.7%), borrow food from relatives, friends and neighbours (52.1%) and reduce adults' food consumption to secure the need of children for food (51.3%) in times of food defi cit Table 4.

Implication for policy on agrarian household's food insecurity
Institutional structural implication: According to key informant information, declining per capita food production has been a long-standing problem in The Gambia. This problem is compounded by a projected near-doubling of the country population. The situation is particularly worrisome in rural settlements where farmers have lost 25% of their purchasing power over the years due to low production, and average annual farm incomes are below GMD 5,000 per capita.   soaring prices of food commodities and essential production inputs; inadequate domestic policies, institutional support and investment in the sector, particularly roads and equipment have been major challenges faced by the country.
The strategy for food security in The Gambia also identifi ed low levels of input use as constraints to increased agricultural productivity. Thus several credit schemes were initiated as part of all agricultural development projects. The schemes were designed to allow producers to buy inputs like seeds, fertilizer etc. for crop production, drugs and other veterinary products for animal health and production, among others. Despite these efforts farmers continue to face issues of low levels of inputs [10].
As a result of the subsistence nature of farming, agrarian households do not produce enough to attain marketable surplus. There is limited Income from agriculture and other sources which is often due to insuffi cient output marketing opportunities. Since markets are poorly developed, farmers are not able to sell their excess products, and the fact that there was, in general, no collateral for these loans, loan repayments were generally poor leading to the collapse of these credit schemes.
However, according to the Gambia poverty assessment report 2009, access to credit, membership in producer associations and use of extension services are also found to be signifi cantly associated with higher production and productivity. Access to credit for rural farmers appears to be surprisingly reasonable, at an estimated 40 per cent, and more than half of the farmers received credit from microfi nance institutions. The signifi cant estimates of the impact of producer associations and extension services need to be interpreted with caution and should be further analysed. The causality relationship could go either way given that more extensive and higher productivity farmers could, for various reasons, be more likely to be a member of associations and receive extension services.
The appraisal report also indicates that the LRR, CRR/N and CRR/S regions have particularly high productive potential.
They are key rice and leafy vegetable growing areas with relatively fertile lowland soils, which can be developed to  Ensuring the availability of fi nancing (both short and long term) will require innovative institutional responses such as soft loans and grants, seed-fi nancing programmes, tax credits, micro-fi nance programmes, etc.
Implication on policy: Government identifi ed policies to improve productivity and diversifi cation, among others, restructuring the land tenure and inheritance system to correct gender bias, improving the supply of good fertilizers and pesticides, use of excellent and improved quality seeds and promoting pest and disease control programmes, exploiting the opportunity from the fi sheries, forestry and underground water resources, crop diversifi cation and enhancing climate risk management. However, Government should also encourage and facilitate the participation of the private sector and smallscale farmers in all aspects of agriculture to enhance food security.
The Agriculture and Natural Resources (ANR) and the Gambia National Agricultural Investment Programme (GNAIP) combine policies, institutional, infrastructure and technologyrelated measures to address the multiplicity of supply-side constraints to enhance the growth in agriculture, in The Gambia. Within the context of GNAIP, the government plans to improve agricultural growth from 4% in 2009 to 8% by 2016 and to increase national household's incomes (reduction in the number of people below the poverty line from 61% in 2009 to 44.6 % in 2016). The GNAIP is comprehensive in scope and aligned with the national goals of Vision 2020, and supports the realization of the main national strategic programmes, including the PAGE as well as the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP) framework, a programme of the New Partnership for Africa (NEPAD).
The areas of focus for the GNAIP are mainly improvement of agricultural land and water management, improved management of other shared natural resources, development of agricultural chains and market promotion, national food and nutrition security, sustainable farm development, improved access to farmlands as well as markets and social services, and coordination, monitoring and evaluation.
As indicated in the United Nations, Economic Commission Country Profi le, The Gambia, even though these policy measures are within the implementation capacity of the Government, there is a limited level of success with little quantifi able effect on rural poverty or agricultural productivity. Although monitoring and evaluation are a fundamental part of the design stage, there has not been any review of GNAIP known to allow pinpointing its constraints and weaknesses. Despite the involvement of several development partners, the goals of Vision 2020 concerning agriculture are still far away. Agricultural productivity is unstable and not high enough to cater for the current population growth. The PAGE midterm evaluation shows that food insecurity persists for those engaged in agriculture and to a great extent pinpoints failures by institutions and inadequate planning that are frustrating the efforts of the Government to reach its objectives in agriculture.
The Government, therefore, needs to strengthen organization and management of agricultural extension programmes that can provide a sustained fl ow of technological and technical information pertinent to farmers' production problems, and integrate irrigation and water resources management into farming practices to boost agricultural productivity and safeguard it from weather-related risks.

The extent of agrarian households' vulnerability to food insecurity in the Lower River Region of The Gambia
A number of factors infl uence household food security [14], size of the family, cultivated land size, fertility of soil, irrigation access, number of extension visits, fertilizer use and improved seed [15].
In the study area, 9.6% had a household size of 1 to 5 people, 31.3% household size of 6 to 10 persons and 59.1% had household size of 10 persons and above. A negative implication Citation: Mendy  According to key informants, drought and other climatic extremes are also major contributing factors to vulnerability to food insecurity. In the past years, the Lower River Region has not received normal rainfall thus not free from climatic abnormalities such as fl ood or drought. Drought is the most appalling natural event that causes widespread vulnerability in the region, but this is by no means the only natural hazard facing the people of the area. Periodically, fl oods affl ict localized parts of even the driest areas. These factors contribute negatively to crop production. Although some of these factors are beyond governments' control, progressive policies that aimed at strengthening agriculture and food security, improving nutritional outcomes and building resilience can lessen the impact of future shocks [24].

Coping strategies of agrarian households
Households employ different coping strategies in times of food defi cit in the study area. Food insecurity is a climateinduced shock or risk, and coping strategies are those commonly used in mitigating vulnerability. The potential food insecurity coping strategies practiced in the study areas include relying on less preferred food and less expensive foods like carbohydrates. Generally, rice is the main carbohydrate meal accompanied by different stews or soup in The Gambia.
Vulnerable households eating less than three meals a day turn up to eat rice as "nyangkatango" that is dry white rice. Other substitutes include "cherreh" which is locally processed millet.
These dishes are socially accepted, affordable and cheaper.
Some households also turn to gather wild foods and/or hunting.
Other unfortunate strategies occasionally adopted include reducing expenditures on essential non-food items such as on education and health, selling household assets and goods like jewellery, phone, furniture etc., The coping strategies adopted varied signifi cantly across the different districts.

Analysis of coping strategies in work done by Grobler and
Dunga (2017), shows that higher levels of food insecurity are associated with the use of more coping strategies. Although the analysis shows that food secure households also use some coping strategies. These are mostly food saving and income saving which are necessarily a planning strategy, unlike food shortage strategy. Maxwell, et al. 2003 [25] argue that coping strategies used may differ from household to household and within households. In this context, Mjonono, et al. 2009 [26], indicates that the coping strategies used will vary between different poverty levels. In this regard, this study analyses the coping strategies used by the food secure group in a community versus the insecure food group in the community.
According to key informant information, households in Jarra East district seek off-farm or non-farm sources of food and income or reduce household food consumption. Kiang East district is focused more on investing in social capital and food aid from effective government strategies as compared to other districts. While for Jarra Central district, the most effective coping strategy reported engaging in off/non-farm activities.

Consumption coping strategy Index
Consumption coping strategies index (CSI) is a quick qualitative method and ranking on food insecurity mitigating options. It is an indexing tool that provides real-time information (at a lean period). It is relatively quick and easy to use. It can be administered and correlated subsequently with more complex measures of food insecurity at the district level. A comprehensive study of households' food insecurity would require a detailed consideration of livelihoods and assets. The CSI is entirely satisfactory as a rapid indicator of household food insecurity status.
The CSI had been similarly used by Mjonono, et al. 2009 [26], Sample households were asked how often their households had to do with particular coping mechanisms, that is, if there were times when they did not have enough food or money to buy food in the past 12 months. 83% revealed that they reduce the number of daily meals as measures to food insecurity faced by their households. 76.4% indicate the use of reducing the expenditure of the household to the least to buy food as their primary coping strategy. The major consumption coping strategies used is borrowed food from relatives, friends and neighbours, and reduce the number of daily meals in order of importance. Households with less CSI scores applied those consumption coping strategies less frequently than households with high CSI scores.
The current study revealed that most food-insecure households tend to reduce the expenditure of the household to the least to buy food (65.3%), turn to the consumption of low quality and cheaper foodstuff (Shift to less preferred food) (53.7%), borrow food from relatives, friends and neighbours (52.1%) and reduce adults' food consumption to secure the need of children for food (51.3%) in times of food defi cit). Farzana, et al. [27] found a signifi cant association between the different types of coping strategies used and the level of household food insecurity. In this study, it was found that severely food insecure households are more inclined to a wider selection of coping strategies to cope with food insecurity, than mildly or moderately food insecure households. Mabuza, et al. [28], indicated that households do not act in an arbitrary way when it comes to food insecurity. In most cases, they develop strategies to minimise the risk to immediate food insecurity.

Implication of Findings
Implication for policy on agrarian household's food insecurity: Recent experiences have exposed the risk of relying heavily on market forces to boost agricultural development.
The role of the Ministry of Agriculture and its partners is key in providing supportive macroeconomic environment and effi cient infrastructure for the sector, and socializing risks and helping farmers to manage shocks. The implication is therefore forging new partnerships with a focus on strengthening smallholder farmers. Such farmers often face severe institutional constraints concerning land tenure arrangements, access to inputs and technological support services which restrict their ability to respond to external and internal shocks. Therefore, a clear mechanism has to be put in place with the government providing a regulatory environment that can help to address issues related to access to inputs and technological support services among others. The Ministry of Agriculture should also support and strengthen farmer groups and cooperatives.
According to the study agriculture is not in the hands of the active population that is 64.7% are between the age of 46 and above 60, therefore the government should fi nd ways to promote youth participation in the agriculture sector of the country.
Citation: Mendy  The policy emphasizes youth development and mobilizing young people for increasing agricultural productivity.
In terms of level of education in the study, most of the respondents (75.2%) were without any formal education, (8.3%) did Vocational training, (4.3%) had primary education, whilst (11.3%) obtained secondary education and 2 (0.9%) attended university education. This has serious implication on agricultural production because education plays a pivotal role in improving on production. Today, as compared to the past, we have witness a lot of technological innovations in the agricultural sector especially in the developed countries. For Africa to make positive steps in its quest to increase production especially for smallholder farming systems, there is need for adequate transfer of technology to enhance production and productivity.
Implication on Vulnerability to Food Insecurity: In terms of household size as shown in the study, (9.6%) had a household size of 1 to 5 people, (31.3%) had a household size of 6 to 10 persons and (59.1%) had a household size of 10 persons and above. In a similar study done by Abdullah, et al. 2017 [36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46], the food insecurity of household is associated with many factors including the size of the family.
One of the positive implication to large household sizes could be that, they can provide easy access to family labour during farming. However one of the negative implication could be that, some large household sizes can easily become vulnerable to food insecurity as they have a greater number of people to cater for. Thus the need for safety net programs to encourage household food saving in times of abundance.
As shown in the study, the degree of vulnerability in the study area is about 45%. Jarra West has the highest prevalence of food insecurity; 2.65% of the population representing 335 households. Jarra East and Kiang Central recorded prevalence levels of 1.97% and 1.93% respectively. Kiang east is the district with the least proportion of people considered highly vulnerable (0.98%). This translates to 124 households.
The results show signifi cant differences in vulnerability to food insecurity across the districts. This has implication on policy, thus, district-specifi c coping strategies are needed. Hence, food security intervention programs should give priority to highly vulnerable areas like Jarra West and Jarra East districts.

Implication on livelihoods:
Households coping strategies of the areas are, however, infl uenced by the geographical location of these districts and its characteristics. For example, Jarra East and West have market centres wherein households could engage in other sources of livelihoods through trade, unlike the other areas where there are little or no other economic activities that households can engage in, for livelihood needs. According to this study, areas (districts) with households that rely on agriculture as their primary source of livelihoods have lower levels of food insecurity compared to areas that depended on other sources as their primary source of livelihoods.
Contrarily, the results of the CFSVA (2016), have shown that food insecurity levels are higher in households that mainly depend on agriculture as their primary source of livelihood. However, this differences could also be attributed to the fact that the study primarily focused on agrarian households and the main consumption patterns or means of livelihood assessment was focused on agriculture and related sources and not monetary values. (CFSVA, 2016).

Conclusion
The study concluded that food insecurity is a major problem in small-scale agrarian households of The Gambia. Trends in food security and nutrition are intrigued by climate variability and vulnerability to shocks and crises. Vulnerability to food insecurity varies signifi cantly across the three districts of LRR. On average, the degree of vulnerability in the Lower River Region of The Gambia is about 45%. Most food insecure Citation: Mendy J, Asongwe GA, Nkongho RN (2020) Vulnerability to food insecurity and coping strategies of agrarian households in the lower river region of the Gambia: Implication for policy. Int J Agric Sc Food Technol 6(2): 115-126. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.17352/2455-815X.000064 households tend to reduce the expenditure of the household to the least to buy food (65.3%), turn to the consumption of low quality and cheaper foodstuff (shift to less preferred food) (53.7%), borrow food from relatives, friends and neighbours (52.1%) and reduce adults' food consumption to secure the need of children for food (51.3%) in times of food defi cit. The challenges to promote food security and improve nutrition in "vulnerable areas" are diverse. They include frequent or continued exposure to shocks that undermine livelihoods, food and market systems. Weak institutional and governance capacity, as well as unsustainable or inequitable use of natural resources, are also a common feature of protracted crises.
Emergency interventions in these contexts are often not well integrated with development approaches to address structural issues and promote resilience. Also recognizing the importance of crop diversifi cation in smallholder production systems, particularly its role in ensuring that farmers do not depend exclusively on production and income from a single crop.
Future advances in practice and research are needed to better promote resilience.